Ingredient % = (Ingredient weight ÷ Flour weight) × 100 Flour is always 100%. All other ingredients are expressed as a percentage of the flour weight. This makes it easy to scale recipes and compare formulas regardless of batch size.

Volume measurements (cups) are inconsistent — a scooped cup of flour can vary by 20–30g depending on how tightly it's packed. Weighing ingredients in grams gives repeatable, accurate results every time. Professional bakers always work by weight.

Hydration % = (Water ÷ Flour) × 100 Low hydration (55–65%): stiff, easy to shape — bagels, pretzels. Medium (65–72%): standard bread. High (72–80%): open crumb, sticky — ciabatta. Very high (80%+): wet dough requiring folds rather than kneading.

Fresh yeast has the highest moisture content and shortest shelf life. Active dry yeast needs to be proofed in warm water before use. Instant yeast can be added directly to dry ingredients and acts faster. General ratio: 1g instant ≈ 1.2g active dry ≈ 3g fresh yeast.

Most ingredients scale linearly. However: leavening agents (baking powder, bicarb) should be increased by about 75% of the linear amount for large batches. Salt and spices: scale to 75% first and taste. Pan size affects cooking time — a thicker batter takes longer. Eggs: round to the nearest whole egg and adjust liquid slightly if needed.

Substitutions work best in forgiving recipes (muffins, pancakes, quick breads). They may alter texture, colour or rise in delicate recipes like sponge cakes or croissants. Always test in a small batch first. Vegan substitutions like flax eggs work well in dense baked goods but not in recipes relying on eggs for structure or lift.

Fan-forced (convection) ovens circulate hot air and cook approximately 20°C hotter than conventional ovens. Most modern Australian ovens are fan-forced. If a recipe specifies a conventional temperature, reduce by 20°C or 10–15 minutes for fan-forced. Always preheat the oven fully before baking.

Always add a 10% buffer for unexpected guests or extra helpings. For buffets, allow 20–25% more than a plated meal as guests tend to take more. Quantities shown are raw weight before cooking — cooked weight will be less (typically 25–30% less for proteins). For dietary requirements, plan at least 20% of dishes as vegetarian/vegan.

Food cost % = (Ingredient cost per serve ÷ Selling price) × 100 Industry benchmarks: food cost % should be 28–35% for restaurants, 25–30% for cafés. Gross profit margin (after ingredient cost only) should be 65–72%+. Labour and overhead are additional. If food cost % is above 40%, review your pricing, portion sizes or supplier costs.

Tipping is not mandatory in Australia — service staff are paid award wages. However, tipping is increasingly common, especially in restaurants and for exceptional service. A 10% tip is considered generous; 5% is appreciated. Rounding up the bill is also common. Unlike the US, there is no expectation to tip for counter service or takeaway.